CONCLUSIONS

10. Conclusions

Our investigations confirmed that respiratory acts in wind instrument playing derives their characteristics from three different realms, (1) the acoustical properties of the instrument, (2) the physiological characteristics of the player, and (3) the musical demands of the score. This supports the assumption that an interdisciplinary approach to the study of sound production in wind instruments is likely to yield more information and to open new perspectives, promoting understanding of several, otherwise confusing and intangible issues.

Here follows conclusions ordered according to the papers presented.

Paper I

• Blowing pressures represent a factor of major relevance to playing.
• Blowing pressure is varied systematically with dynamic level and fundamental frequency in the instruments studied; these dependencies seemed consistent within as well as between players
• In doublereed instruments pressure was increased with fundamental frequency while in the clarinet the pressure tended to decrease with fundamental frequency within each register and in the saxophone, it was varied according to a pattern similar to that of doublereeds in the lowest octave, and similar to that of the clarinet in the higher range.

Paper II

• The hardness of the reed affects various input parameters, harder reeds require higher airflow, blowing pressure and tend to produce tones of higher SPL.
• Airflow systematically increased with blowing pressure and dynamical level in all instruments.
• Players tend to simultaneously increase blowing pressure and decrease the tightness of the embouchure, when they increase dynamical level. For constant embouchure an increased blowing pressure produces a softer tone.
• Intense vibrato in reed woodwinds was associated with comparatively wide pressure undulations. These undulations cannot be produced merely by the laryngeal mechanism described in previous studies but rather with participation of expiratory forces.

Paper III

• During playing wind instruments the content of CO₂ in the expired air varies between the ambient level and up to 8.5% in extremely long phrases, while for the O₂ it may vary from the ambient 21% down to 12%, or even less.
• The increase in CO₂ tends to lower the pitch and the fall in O₂ tends to raise it. The net effect is a pitch decrease.
• Air humidity, on the other hand, changing at each new breath, tends to increase pitch.
• The overall effect of these factors may account for a fall in fundamental frequency by more than 15 cents.
• The player may compensate for these relevant pitch effects by means of the embouchure and blowing pressure.

Paper IV

• The non-invasive RIP method revealed to be robust and reasonably accurate also when applied to wind instrument playing.
• Spirometry indicated that the relationship between the RIP output and lung volume was linear within the typical ranges used in reed woodwind instrument playing.
• Artefacts were caused by posture changes and by the compression of the respiratory system required at high expiratory pressures. Compression artefacts can be partly compensated for by postprocessing of the data, taking the blowing pressure into account.
• Initiation lung volume (ILV) typically ranged between 55% and 87% of vital capacity (VC) in the pieces tested.
• For instruments that require blowing pressures in the range of the relaxation pressures, i.e. up to 40 cmH₂O approximately, termination lung volume (TLV) reached values close to 0% VC in extreme cases.
• For instruments requiring higher blowing pressures such as the oboe, TLV values below rest end-expiratory level (REL) were rarely observed.
• During a highly demanding piece inhalation breath pauses were typically about 300 ms long and synchronised with increases of the RC and AW signals
• The RIP method, at least when complemented by spirometry and constant-flow procedure, should be useful for future research as well as for pedagogical purposes.

Paper V

• The factors involved in the perception of blowing pressure are complex and not easily isolated from each other, as these pressures are sensed by different organs and mechanisms.
• Still, reproducible and consistent data were obtained from highly trained players.
• The relationship between stimulus and perception was quasi-linear in almost all cases; a power function with the exponent generally close to 1.0 also represented an acceptable model. The power function exponents were mostly positively correlated to lung volume.
• Sensation of blowing pressure alone seems to provide an important clue for the musician's control of the instrument.
• Considerable inter-subject differences were found in estimated sensitivity; therefore, mean values are not adequate for predicting the behaviour of individual subjects.
• Psychophysical methods seem useful for assessment of playing abilities in players, and possibly for evaluating specific training programs designed to improve respiratory control in performance.

Paper VI

• The particular phonatory mode investigated in this exploratory study was associated with simultaneous oscillations of the vocal folds and the ventricular folds.
• The effect is similar to that produced in the Tibetan chant tradition, according to an expert listener.
• The frequency ratio between vocal and ventricular folds was 2:1 or, in some cases, 3:1.
• The closure of the ventricular folds occurs during the open phase of the vocal folds, thus damping every second or third glottal pulse.
• The driving of the ventricular folds seems to be a negative pressure generated by the airstream contained in the glottal pulse.
• The subglottal pressures required were consistently higher than those used in modal and pulse register, at least in the subject used in this experiment.
• The fundamental frequency range approached one octave starting at 49 Hz (G₁), approximately. The SPL measured at 0.3 m could be varied within 64 and 88 dBA for the 58Hz (Bb₁) tone.
• This technique can also be employed in wind instruments playing, producing a family of new sounds.

  ©1998 by Leonardo Fuks

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Acknowledgements

 

Acknowledgements

Music is certainly the least specific name given to an art, since it might apply to any modality presided by the Muses. This work was done under the inspiration of a Muse who, rather than merely being an imaginary entity, happens to exist and to be my wife. Heloisa is the true source of a great deal of the energy, support, understanding, tolerance, advice and love that has been invested into this enterprise of life. This thesis is a tribute to her.

My permanence in Sweden was only made possible through a generous and stimulating scholarship from the Brazilian Ministry of Education and Sports, through Capes Foundation. Also a special permission was given to me by the Rio de Janeiro Federal University to take leave from my position at the School of Music. I am grateful to my dear colleagues, particularly those from Department IV, who helped me in pursuing my doctoral studies. I shall do my best to return all this investment and solicitude by means of a passionate and dedicated work.

Once in Sweden, I would like to thank Gunnar Fant for establishing this renowned, innovative, interdisciplinary and harmonious Department of Speech, Music and Hearing, and for giving me the privilege of his friendship and enriching daily contact.

This thesis would not exist at all without Johan Sundberg, who accepted me as a doctoral student, despite my time constraints, and who believed in my project and in my declaration of dedication. His knowledge, guidance, energy, humour, friendship, openness, companionship and inspiration will always serve to me as an example of the perfect supervisor. In addition, his poetic talent for doing, writing and teaching science was highly inspiring and influential in this work. Johan has shown that being a supervisor is not only looking from above (which is not problem for him), but includes kindly taking the student by the hand (as implied by the Swedish term "handledare") and also having the gift of human and musical auscultation. Besides, being his co-author has been a great joy and privilege. In addition, it was marvellous to meet Ulla, Johanna, Bellen, Martin and Erik.

I would like to thank the former Head of Department, Björn Granström, for welcoming me and letting me into the institution. My heartfelt thanks also to the present "prefekt", Anders Askenfeld, for our great friendship and for gently "kicking me out" in a timely manner. Leaving this marvellous place is not an easy task. Also an effusive "tack" to all my colleagues and friends at the department for making this most intense triennium of my life an equally pleasant and unforgettable time, especially during the almost 150 Friday-coffee-breaks in which I happily parttook.

I would particularly like to thank Anders Askenfelt, Johan Liljencrants, Erik Jansson, Arne Lejon and Knut Guettler for sharing their profound knowledge and for participating in the different stages of this research and learning process. The course on scientific writing, given by Sandra Brunsberg, was most helpful and pleasant, and I hope this text is worthy of her approval.

Many thanks to my colleagues and friends at the music group for all the fun and collaboration: Jenny, Monica, Sten, Anders, Roberto/Christine, Sofia, Peta, Svante (who also helped so much in discussions and technical matters), Daniel, Julieta, Vittorio and Frédérique.

Special gratitude is devoted to Eric Prame, who accepted me as a roommate and who kindly and patiently helped me with so many practical details. His competent and meticulous review of this manuscript was invaluable. Moreover, his knowledge, reasoning, vivid interest on vast areas and emanating peacefulness were also a great help to me.

Once inside the room, I must thank whoever built my computer, Intruder; it never abandoned me and never distinguished between boring and exciting tasks. Obviously, my friends Svante, Jan, Tor and Kenneth are among the reasons for this flawless behaviour.

My life at the department was extremely facilitated by the work and friendship by Cathrin (who edited a great part of this thesis), Markku (who fixed everything but my computer), Viktoria and Armid (both who solved all financial puzzles) and Ebi.

Kjell and Kjellg must be acknowledged for the good moments, at atypical hours and days. Thanks to Mats, for bringing the freshness of the 70’s. A nonexhaustive list of amiable colleagues should include: Alice, Adam, Anita(s), Anne-Marie, Bastiaan, Carl-Wilhelm, Carolina, David, Elisabet, Erland, Eva, Eva-Lena, Giampiero, Håkan&Eka, Harald, Inger, Jesper, Jocke, Johan, Jonas, Kristin, Kåre, Kalle, Keyhan, Linda, Ludde, Magnus, Martin, Nikko, Nikolaj, Peter, PeRa, Philippe, Renat, Rolf, Sheri, Tan Lee, Tony, Tamas, Thomas, Tibor, Tina and Tobias. Special thanks to Lennart Nord; I very much enjoyed playing with and talking to him.

Among the musicians, I would like to thank Lars Fridén, Christer Johnsson, Knut Sönstevold, Bengt Rosengren, Ulf Bjurenhed, Dag Henriksson, Michael Schlyter, Dirk Schmidt, Gunilla Sundin, Martin Ericsson, Hans Samuelsson, Sven Larsson, Tore West and Inge Boström.

At the Karolinska Institute, I would like to thank Britta Hammarberg, Stellan Hertegård, Per-Åke Lindestad for the essential collaboration in the voice studies, and Miriam Katz-Salamon and Michael Runold for our helpful discussions on respiration, the availability the use of equipment, and for their friendship. I am also indebted to Curt von Euler.

Still in Sweden, a number of friends as well as their children deserve a big hug: Guilherme/Silvia, Peter/Marcia, Peter/Gunnel, Ubaldo/Gilda, Pär/Anne-Lee, Enrico/Claudia, Ary/Ma.Elisa, Heraldo/Annika, Adriana/Mauro, Monica/David, Grillo/Ki. Also, thanks to Azad, Bengt, Elvira, Ana Maria, Heiko, Sylvain, Vinicius, Bert, Azril, Tuire/Raymond, Steven, Thais, Marisa and Lydia, among others. Thanks, Wenner-Gren Center and Fredrik, for your warm hospitality.

No further away than a couple of keyboard commands, a phone call or a short letter, the friends were always available and on my mind: Ricardo (my "searcher"), João Afonso/Ana/Bruna, Adriano, Rodrigo/Elsebeth/Thiago, Pauxy/Piatã, Alexandre, Aribeth, Felipe, Admar, Luis Henrique, George, Alex Klein, Daniella, Jennifer, Alex Georg, Isnar/Simone/Pedro, Duda, Jocy, Fernando/Aude/Madalena/Matheus, Tadeu, Clóvis, Bill, Savio/Beth, Ayrosa/Isabel, Sérgio, Sonia, Rosi, Cearmando/Eliane, Bonturi, Firpo/Birgit/Fellippe/Helena, Cosme/Zênon, Roberto/Adri/Alan/Alexia, Luis Fernando and family, Domicio, Henrique/Sandra/kids, Tchê, Alex, Paulo/Ricardo, João, Samuca/Ligia, Laura/Eurico, Antonio, Daniel, Teca/Anna/Ilan, Rita/Cássio, Cibele, José Guilherme, Marcelo, Vera, Vereza, Zé Miguel, Patrick, Marcia/Dunga, to mention some.

I am also indebted to all my teachers, both in engineering (in particular to Ronaldo Soares de Andrade) and in music (in particular Wilson Dantas, Ricardo Rodrigues, Homero Magalhães, Luiza Quintanilha and Luis Carlos Justi).

These are only a few names, since I cannot adequately acknowledge all of the people to whom I am indebted. I hope the rest will know who they are and that I thank them very much.

Finally, I want to mention those who do not need to be mentioned, because they are the very reason for my existence, the family: my mother Rosa for her endless concern, love and support; Hilton, Bia, Julia and Diana; Adolfo, Chana, Monica and Dani; Marcos, Henrique, Raquel, Miguel, and their children, my cousins; Joanna; Antonio/Clea.

 

And vovó Branca, who always waited for us.

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